tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-15233109971820891232024-03-08T04:12:31.627-08:00Microbiology courseTito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.comBlogger23125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-68352980021078287632014-04-03T19:16:00.001-07:002022-04-13T19:28:09.359-07:00Spore stain<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/mVvR-qyRgP0?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></div>
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470553/#:~:text=Gram%2Dpositive%20bacteria%20are%20bacteria,found%20in%20gram%2Dpositive%20organisms." target="_blank">Gram-positive bacteria</a> produce endospores which are highly resistant to heating
and a variety of chemicals. These spores are found in the genera <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus" target="_blank">Bacillus</a> </i>and
<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium" target="_blank">Clostridium</a>. </i>The spores are difficult to stain using normal techniques,
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been taken up by the spores, it is extremely difficult to decolourise them,
although the vegetative portion of the cell can be decolourised easily. Several
versions of the spore stain are used.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
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is advisable to use old cultures grown on nutrient agar, as spore production is
a survival mechanism found in ageing cultures. <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">A </span>smear should be made and fixed in the normal manner. The slide
should be placed on the rim of a beaker half full of boiling water, with the
bacterial film uppermost, and then the following procedure used.</span></div>
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Flood the slide with 5% aqueous malachite green and leave for <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">2-3 </span>minutes. Do not allow the stain to
dry; if the stain starts to dry, add more. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c)
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d)
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
spores will stain green and vegetative portions of the cell will stain red/ pink.
If a very old culture was used, it may be difficult to find vegetative
material.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
size and position of the spores should be noted, as this may be of diagnostic value,
especially when examining members of the genus <i>Clostridium. </i>They may be polar
or central, and may be the same diameter as the cell or larger than it, causing
it to bulge.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-14444380703623423222014-04-03T19:08:00.001-07:002022-04-13T19:38:00.883-07:00Gram Stain<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/aJpZzF3h3kc?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This is the
most important stain in bacteriology and is so central to identification that
it should be practised until the operator is fully competent. A<b> </b>number
of different variations are found, and the laboratory should standardise on
one method.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
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<b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It is essential that young cultures (24 </span></i></b><b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Courier;">hrs) </span></i></b><b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">are used as old cultures may give false negative results.</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prepare a smear
as described above.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a. Cover
the slide with an ammonium oxalate, crystal violet preparation and leave for
one minute. This is prepared by dissolving 20 g of crystal violet in </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">200 </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ml
of methanol, and adding 800 ml of 1% <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_oxalate" target="_blank">ammonium oxalate</a>. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> b.Rinse
well with water and blot.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> <span style="font-size: small;">c.</span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Add
an iodine preparation and leave for one minute. This is prepared by adding 1 g
of iodine and 2 <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">g </span>of potassium
iodide to 300 ml of distilled water.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rinse
well with water and blot.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">e e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Decolourise
with <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">95% </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ethanol for
approximately <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">15 </span>seconds, rinse
with water and blot.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stain with 0.5% safranin for
approximately 15 seconds, wash with water, blot dry, and examine with an oil immersion objective.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470553/#:~:text=Gram%2Dpositive%20bacteria%20are%20bacteria,found%20in%20gram%2Dpositive%20organisms." target="_blank">Gram-positive cells</a> will be seen as purple, whilst <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2857177/#:~:text=Gram%2Dnegative%20bacteria%20are%20surrounded,found%20in%20the%20Gram%2Dnegatives." target="_blank">Gram-negative cells</a> will be seen as pink. <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">A </span>few organisms are
Gram-indeterminate, and the best way of examining these is to take a slide and
divide it into three portions. A smear of the culture under examination is
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</span>known Gram-positive is placed on one side of it, and a smear of a known
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Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-43002414786532452202014-03-29T16:04:00.000-07:002015-01-08T14:06:27.039-08:00A General Model for Biofilm Development<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://biofilmbook.hypertextbookshop.com/public_version/artifacts/images/chapter_002/section003/CH02_S03_image004.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://biofilmbook.hypertextbookshop.com/public_version/artifacts/images/chapter_002/section003/CH02_S03_image004.jpg" height="239" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">Biofilm formation is
a developmental process in which bacteria undergo a regulated lifestyle switch
from a nomadic unicellular state to a sedentary multicellular state where
subsequent growth results in structured communities and cellular
differentiation. Results of prior work by many groups allow the construction of
a hypothetical developmental model for biofilm formation that can be
generalized for many different bacterial species. This model can be adjusted to
fit either of two general modes of unicellular lifestyle: nonmotile and motile.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">In the case of
non-motile species, when conditions are propitious for biofilm
formation, individual bacteria appear to increase the expression of adhesins on
their outer surface, i.e., they increase their “stickiness”. This increased
stickiness promotes both cell-cell adherence and cell-surface adherence when
these bacteria encounter a surface. For example, in the case of
some strains of staphylococcal species, surface-expressed proteins, including Bap,
promote cellcell interaction and contribute to the extracellular matrix. Many other species,
both nonmotile and motile, harbor homologs of Bap. A unifying feature of these
large extracellular proteins is the presence of repeated domains. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">At the level of the </span><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Italic;">bap </span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">gene, these repeats
have been shown to be recombinogenic, resulting in the production of proteins
of variable length within a biofilm population. Yet, the
significance of this variability in the size of Bap proteins within a biofilm
remains unknown. Nonmotile species also produce exopolysaccharides (EPS) that
form an integral part of the extracellular matrix. One example of this is the
PIA or PNAG EPS, produced by the gene products of the </span><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Italic;">ica </span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">operon of
staphylococcal species. Thus, in nonmotile bacteria, changes in cell surface
proteins, along with the production of EPS, play a critical role in the initiation
of biofilm formation.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">In the case of motile
species, when conditions favor biofilm formation, individual bacteria
localize to a surface and initiate a dramatic lifestyle switch. Motility is
lost and bacteria begin to produce an extracellular matrix that holds the cells
together. For a number of motile organisms, the dominant role for flagella in initiation
of biofilm formation is to provide motility as flagella-minus and paralyzed flagella
mutants are comparably defective in biofilm formation. In fact, in </span><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Italic;">Listeria
monocytogenes </span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">supplying exogenous cell movement directed toward the surface via
centrifugation restores wild type levels of initial surface adhesion to
nonmotile mutants. In these cases, it appears that motility
is the driving force that overcomes repulsive forces between the bacteria and
the surface. Initial encounters with a surface usually lead to transient
adherence. This transient adherence can result in either a stable surface
association, and a subsequent switch to biofilm development, or in a return to
planktonic existence.</span></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-71002004058192884052014-03-27T20:35:00.000-07:002015-01-08T14:14:25.132-08:00Transport of an Infectious Agent<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Transmission involves
the transport of an infectious agent from the reservoir to the host. It is the
most important link in the chain of infection. Pathogens can be transmitted
from the reservoir to a susceptible host by various routes (Sobsey and Olson,
1983).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">a. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Person-to-Person
Transmission</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">The most common route
of transmission of infectious agents is from person to person. The best
examples of direct contact transmission are the sexually transmitted diseases
such as syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes, or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS). </span></div>
<a name='more'></a>Coughing and sneezing discharge very small droplets containing
pathogens within a few feet of the host (droplet infection). Transmission by
these infectious droplets is sometimes considered as an example of direct
contact transmission.<br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">b. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Waterborne Transmission</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">The waterborne
transmission of cholera was established in 1854 by John Snow, an English physician
who noted a relationship between a cholera epidemics and consumption of water from
the Broad Street well in London. The waterborne route is not, however, as
important as the person-to-person contact route for the transmission of fecally
transmitted diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that
diarrhoeal diseases contracted worldwide mainly by contaminated water or food,
killed 3.1 million people, most of them children (WHO, 1996). In the United
States, waterborne disease outbreaks are reported to the U.S.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) by local epidemiologists
and health authorities; the system was started in the 1920s (Craun, 1986a, b;
1988). During the period 1971– 1985, 502 waterborne outbreaks and 111,228 cases
were reported. Three-quarters of the outbreaks were due to untreated or inadequately
treated groundwater and surface waters. Gastrointestinal illnesses of unidentified
etiology and giardiasis are the most common waterborne diseases for groundwater
and surface water systems. The outbreak rate (expressed as the number of
outbreaks</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">1000 water systems) and
the illness rate (expressed as numbers of cases</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">million-person year) decrease as the raw water
is filtered and disinfected (Craun, 1988).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">c. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Foodborne Transmission</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Food may serve as a
vehicle for the transmission of numerous infectious diseases caused by
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminth parasites. The World Health
Organization estimates that accidental food poisoning kills up to 1.5 million
people per year. In the United States, it is estimated that foodborne illnesses
affect some 6 to 80 million persons </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/ </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">year, leading to approximately 9000 death (Altekruse
et al., 1997). Food contamination results from unsanitary practices during
production or preparation. Several pathogens and parasites have been detected
in risky foodstuffs such as shellfish, vegetables, raw milk, runny eggs or pink
chicken, turkey, ground beef and ground pork, alfalfa sprouts, and
unpasteurized apple juice</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">cider.
Their presence is of public health significance, particularly for foods that
are eaten raw (e.g., shellfish, fresh produce). There is also an increased risk
among the elderly and immunocompromised people (HIV and leukemia patients, and
those taking immunosuppressive drugs such as steroids, cyclosporine, and radiation
therapy).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Vegetables contaminated
with wastewater effluents are also responsible for disease outbreaks (e.g.,
typhoid fever, salmonellosis, amebiasis, ascariasis, viral hepatitis,
gastroenteritis). Raw vegetables and fruit become contaminated as a result of
being handled by an infected person during processing, storage, distribution or
final preparation, or following irrigation with fecally contaminated water
(Seymour and Appleton, 2001). Vomitus (estimation of 20 to 30 million virus
particles released during vomiting) from infected food handlers can also
contaminate exposed food and surfaces via production of bioaerosols.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">In England and Wales,
viruses accounted for 4.3 percent of all foodborne outbreaks for the period
1992–1999, with Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs) being the most commonly found
agents (O’Brien et al., 2000). Outbreaks of hepatitis were associated with
fresh produce (e.g., salads, iceberg lettuce, diced tomatoes, frozen
raspberries).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Shellfish (e.g.,
oysters, clams, mussels) are significant vectors of human diseases of bacterial,
viral, and protozoan origin. Several surveys have been carried out worldwide to
show the presence of pathogens in shellfish samples. The use of molecular
techniques (RT-PCR) has helped in the detection of enteric viruses (hepatitis A
virus, Norwalk-like virus, enterovirus, rotavirus, and astrovirus) in oyster
and mussel samples in France (Le Guyader et al., 2000). In Switzerland, 8 of 87
imported oyster samples were positive for Norwalk-like viruses (Beuret et al.,
2003). Moreover, infectious oocysts of </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Cryptosporidium </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">were detected in mussels and cockles in
Spain (Gomez-Bautista et al., 2000).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Enteric
viruses (enteroviruses, Norwalk-like viruses, and adenoviruses) were detected
in 50–60 percent of mussel samples in two sites in the west coast of Sweden (Hernroth
et al., 2002). Of 36 mussel samples from the Adriatic Sea, 13 were contaminated
with hepatitis A virus and 5 samples with enteroviruses (Croci et al., 2000).
In several surveys, </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">E. coli </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">was not found to be a good indicator of virus
presence in mussels.</span></span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-74568193080579980652014-03-27T20:24:00.000-07:002015-01-08T14:20:27.543-08:00Determination of Cell Biochemicals<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Microbial biomass can
also be measured by determination of specific cell biochemical constituents
such as ATP, DNA, RNA, proteins, phospholipids, bacterial cell wall components,
or photosynthetic pigments (Sutton, 2002).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0mm; margin-top: 0mm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">ATP</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Adenosine triphosphate
has often been used to determine live microbial biomass in environmental
samples, using a ratio of C</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">ATP
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvMathSymb;">= </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">250 for aquatic
samples. However, the ATP content of cells varies with the growth rate and
metabolic state of microorganisms and nutrient limitation. A better measure is
the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">total
adenylate pool A</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">T
(</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">A</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">T </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvMathSymb;">= </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">ATP +</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvMT_SY;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">ADP </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvMT_SY;">+ </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">AMP) because it does
not change greatly with changes in metabolic activities of the microorganisms.
The </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">adenylate
energy charge </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(EC)
ratio provides information on growth potential of naturally occurring microbial
populations. </span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">An EC of 0.5–0.6
indicates senescence of the microbial population, whereas an EC of 0.8–0.9
indicates active microbial growth. Adenosine triphosphate determination has been
applied to wastewater treatment, disinfection control, and pollution
assessment. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">b. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Thymidine and Leucine
Incorporation into Cells </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Bacterial biomass and
production can also be estimated by measuring the incorporation of tritiated
thymidine into DNA or radioactive leucine into bacterial proteins (bacterial biomass
comprises 60 percent proteins) (Kirchman and Ducklow, 1993).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">c. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Lipid Biomarkers</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Cell lipids can be
classified into neutral lipids (NL), glycolipids (GL), and polar lipids (PL).
They serve as storage material (e.g., poly-</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">b</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">-hydroxybutyrate), electron acceptors in the
electron transport chain in respiration (e.g., quinones), and components of
membranes (e.g., phospholipids) or outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria
(e.g., lipopolysaccharides) (Tunlid, 2002).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Lipid biomarkers give
the following information:</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Microbial biomass. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Lipid biomarkers can
help in the determination of microbial biomass. For example, phospholipid
analysis can determine either the phospholipidbound phosphate (PLP) or the
ester-linked phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA), which serve as biomarkers for
estimating microbial biomass and community composition.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Suggested conversion
factors are 190 </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">m</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">mol P</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">g C, 100</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">m</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">mol P</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">g C, and 50 </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">m</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">mol P</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">g C for aerobic
bacteria, anaerobic bacteria, and eukaryotes, respectively. Phospholipid analysis
is unfortunately complex and requires sophisticated equipment. Ergosterol can serve
as a biomarker for living fungal biomass.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Community composition. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">For example, detection
of signature PLFAs indicates the presence of specific groups of microorganisms
in an environmental sample. Phytanylether lipids indicate the presence of
archaea.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Metabolic activity of
the microbial community. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">This is accomplished by measuring the uptake of 14C-labeled
substrates into lipid biomarkers such as PLFAs or poly-</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">b</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">-hydroxybutyrate.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">d. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Bacteria Cell Wall
Components</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Cell wall components
such as muramic acid and lipopolysaccharide can serve as biomarkers for
estimating bacterial biomass.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">e. </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Molecular Techniques
for the Determination of Cell Viability</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Activity</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Both mRNA and rRNA are
well correlated with cell viability. However, due to its shorter half-life in
the environment, mRNA is generally preferred over rRNA for indicating cell
viability. Reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) can also give an indication of
cell viability. It consists of transcribing a target RNA sequence into a
complimentary DNA (cDNA) sequence, which is then amplified using PCR. Some of
these methods have been used to monitor the viability of bacterial pathogens
and protozoan parasites (Keer and Birch, 2003).</span></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-78919346756371474802014-03-18T21:32:00.000-07:002014-03-24T21:34:04.499-07:00Fungi (Eukaryote)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that produce long filaments called hyphae,
which form a mass called mycellium. Chitin is a characteristic component of the
cell wall of hyphae. In most fungi, the hyphae are septate and contain
crosswalls that divide the filament into separate cells containing one nucleus
each. In some others,the hyphae are nonseptate and contain several nuclei. They
are called coenocytic hyphae.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Fungi are heterotrophic organisms that include both macroscopic and
microscopic forms. They use organic compounds as a carbon source and energy and
thus play an important role in nutrient recycling in aquatic and soil
environments. Some fungi form traps that capture protozoa and nematodes. They
grow well under acidic conditions (pH 5) in foods, water, or wastewater. Most
fungi are aerobic, although some (e.g.,yeast) can grow under facultatively
anaerobic conditions. Fungi are significant components of the soil microflora,
and a great number of fungal species are pathogenic to plants, causing
significant damage to agricultural crops. A limited number of species are
pathogenic to humans and cause fungal diseases called mycoses. Airborne fungal spores
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production (e.g., penicillin). </span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Identification of fungi is mainly based on the type of reproductive
structure. Most fungi produce spores (sexual or asexual spores) for
reproduction, dispersal, and resistance to extreme environmental conditions.
Asexual spores are formed from the mycelium and germinate, producing organisms
identical to the parent. The nuclei of two mating strains fuse to give a diploid
zygote, which gives haploid sexual spores following meiosis.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">There are four major groups of fungi:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvPi1; font-size: 4.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Phycomycetes</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">These fungi are known as the </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">water
molds </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">and occur on the surface of plants and animals
in aquatic environments. They have nonseptate hyphae and reproduce by forming a
sac called </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">sporangium</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, which eventually ruptures to liberate </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">zoospores</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, which settle and form a
new organism. Some phycomycetes produce sexual spores. There are also terrestrial
phycomycetes, such as the common bread mold (</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Rhizopus</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">), which reproduces asexually as well as sexually.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPi1; font-size: 4.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Ascomycetes</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Ascomycetes have septate hyphae. Their reproduction is carried out
by sexual spores (</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">ascospores</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) contained in a sac called an </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">ascus </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(eight or more ascopores in an ascus), or asexual spores called </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">conidia</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, which are often
pigmented. </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Neurospora crassa </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">is a typical ascomycete. Most of the yeasts (e.g., baker’s yeast </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) are
classified as ascomycetes. They form relatively large cells that reproduce
asexually via budding or fission, and sexually by conjugation and sporulation.
Some of these organisms (e.g., </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Candida albicans</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) are pathogenic to humans. Yeasts, especially the genus </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Saccharomyces</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, are important industrial
microorganisms involved in bread, wine, and beer making.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPi1; font-size: 4.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Basidiomycetes</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Basidiomycetes also have a septate mycelium. They produce sexual
spores called </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">basidiospores </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">on the surface of a structure called a </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">basidium. </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Four basidiospores are formed
on the surface of each basidium. Certain basidiomycetes, the </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">wood-rotting fungi </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">play a significant
role in the decomposition of cellulose and lignin. Common edible mushrooms (e.g.,
</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Agaricus</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) belong
to the basidiomycete group. Unfortunately, some of them (e.g., </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Amanita</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) are quite poisonous.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvPi1; font-size: 4.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Fungi
imperfectii</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Fungi imperfectii have septate hyphae but no known sexual stage.
Some of them (e.g., </span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F0B; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Penicillium</span><span style="font-family: AdvPS6F00; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) are used for the commercial production of important antibiotics. These
fungi cause plant diseases and are responsible for mycoses in animals and humans
(e.g., athlete’s foot). </span></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-60938316703494762302014-03-18T14:52:00.000-07:002014-03-24T14:53:12.113-07:00Unusual Types of Bacteria (Part 3)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Actinomycetes</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Actinomycetes
are gram-positive filamentous bacteria characterized by mycelial growth (i.e.,
branching filaments), which is analogous to fungal growth. However, the diameter
of the filaments is similar in size to bacteria (approximately 1 </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">m</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">m).
Most actinomycetes are strict aerobes, but a few of them require anaerobic
conditions. Most of these microorganisms produce spores, and their taxonomy is
based on these reproductive structures (e.g., single spores in </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Micromonospora
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">or chains of spores in </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Streptomyces</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">).
They are commonly found in water, wastewater treatment plants, and soils (with
preference for neutral and alkaline soils). Some of them (e.g., </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Streptomyces</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">)
produce a </span></div>
<a name='more'></a>characteristic “earthy” odor that is due to the production of
volatile compounds called <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">geosmins</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">. They degrade
polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose), hydrocarbons, and lignin. Some of
them produce antibiotics (e.g., streptomycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol). Two
well-known genera of actinomycetes are </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Streptomyces </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Nocardia
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(now called </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Gordonia</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">). </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Streptomyces
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">forms a mycelium with conidial spores at the tip of the hyphae.
These actinomycetes are important industrial microorganisms that produce
hundreds of antibiotic substances. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Gordonia </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">is
commonly found in water and wastewater and degrades hydrocarbons and other
recalcitrant (i.e., hard to degrade) compounds. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Gordonia </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">is a
significant constituent of foams in activated sludge units. </span><br />
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Cyanobacteria</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Often
referred to as blue-green algae, cyanobacteria are prokaryotic organisms that differ
from photosynthetic bacteria in the fact that they carry out oxygenic
photosynthesis. They contain chlorophyll </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">a </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">and
accessory pigments such as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">phycocyanin </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(blue pigment) and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">phycoerythrin
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(red pigment). The characteristic bluegreen color exhibited by these
organisms is due to the combination of chlorophyll </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">a </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">and
phycocyanin. Cyanobacteria occur as unicellular, colonial, or filamentous
organisms. They propagate by binary fission or fragmentation, and some may form
resting structures, called akinetes, which, under favorable conditions,
germinate into a vegetative form. Many contain gas vacuoles that increase cell
buoyancy and help the cells float to the top of the water column where light is
most available for photosynthesis. Some cyanobacteria (e.g., </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Anabaena</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) are
able to fix nitrogen; the site of nitrogen fixation is a structure called a
heterocyst. Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous and, owing to their resistance to
extreme environmental conditions (e.g., high temperatures, desiccation), they
are found in desert soils and hot springs. They are responsible for algal
blooms in lakes and other aquatic environments, and some are quite toxic.</span></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-34218802163785973822014-03-15T14:50:00.000-07:002014-03-24T14:51:32.474-07:00Unusual Types of Bacteria (Part 2)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Gliding
Bacteria</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">These
filamentous gram-negative bacteria move by gliding, a slow motion on a solid surface.
They resemble certain cyanobacteria except that they are colorless. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Beggiatoa
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</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">filaments are characterized by their ability to form rosettes. Myxobacteria are another group of
gliding microorganisms. They feed by lysing bacterial, fungal, or algal cells.
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Bdellovibrio
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">These
small (0.2–0.3 </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvGreekM;">m</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">m), flagellated (polar
flagellum) bacteria are predatory on gram-negative bacteria. After attaching to
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membrane). Because they lyse their prey, they are able to form plaques on a lawn
of the host bacterium. Some </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Bdellovibrio </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">can
grow independently on complex organic media.</span></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-72123222859539073662014-03-12T14:18:00.000-07:002014-03-24T14:20:04.244-07:00Unusual Types of Bacteria (Part 1)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Sheathed
Bacteria</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">These
bacteria are filamentous microorganisms surrounded by a tubelike structure called
a sheath. The bacterial cells inside the sheath are gram-negative rods that become
flagellated (swarmer cells) when they leave the sheath. The swarmer cells produce
a new sheath at a relatively rapid rate. They are often found in polluted streams
and in wastewater treatment plants. This group includes three genera: </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Sphaerotilus</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Leptothrix</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, and </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Crenothrix.
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">These bacteria have the ability to oxidize reduced </span></div>
<a name='more'></a>iron to ferric
hydroxide (e.g., <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Sphaerotilus natans</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Crenothrix</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) or
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Stalked
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Stalked
bacteria are aerobic, flagellated (polar flagellum) gram-negative rods that possess
a stalk, a structure that contains cytoplasm and is surrounded by a membrane and
a wall. At the end of the stalk is a holdfast that allows the cells to adsorb
to surfaces. Cells may adhere to one another and form rosettes. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Caulobacter
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">is a typical stalked bacterium that is found in aquatic environments
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ferruginea</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) is another stalked bacterium that makes a twisted stalk, sometimes
called “ribbon,” consisting of an organic matrix surrounded by ferric
hydroxide. These bacteria are present in iron-rich waters and oxidize Fe2</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvMT_SY;">+ </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">to Fe3+.
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Budding
Bacteria</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">After
attachment to a surface, budding bacteria multiply by budding. They make filaments
or hyphae at the end of which a bud is formed. The bud acquires a flagellum (the
cell is now called a swarmer), settles on a surface, and forms a new hypha with
a bud at the tip. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Hyphomicrobium </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">is widely distributed
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Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-31841870528525198172014-03-07T07:11:00.000-08:002014-03-24T07:12:12.446-07:00DNA Replication and Protein Synthesis<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a name='more'></a>nucleotides is catalyzed by an enzyme called <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">DNA polymerase.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Transcription:
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Transcription is the process of transfer of information from DNA to RNA.
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RNA </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(mRNA). mRNA carries the information from the DNA to the ribosomes
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Translation:
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">mRNA controls protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. This process is called
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">translation. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Another type of RNA is the </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">transfer
RNA </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(tRNA), which has attachment sites for both mRNA and amino acids and
brings specific amino acids to the ribosome.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Each
combination of three nucleotides on the mRNA is called a </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">codon
</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">or </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">triplet.
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of these triplets codes for a specific amino acid. The sequence of codons
determines that of amino acids in a protein. Some triplets code for the
initiation and termination of amino acid sequences. There are 64 possible
codons</span>. </span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-2320979739627685392014-03-05T06:01:00.000-08:002014-03-24T06:03:55.980-07:00Cytoplasmic Membrane (Plasma Membrane)<!--[if !mso]>
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<a name='more'></a>Ca2+ and Mg2+ help
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Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-13842630879604814152014-03-02T22:06:00.000-08:002014-03-25T22:12:38.815-07:00HACCP<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-66573532287091117702014-03-01T22:43:00.000-08:002014-03-24T22:52:20.049-07:00Measurement of Active Cells in Environmental Samples<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Several
approaches have been considered for assessing microbial viability</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">activity
in environmental samples. Epifluorescence microscopy, in combination with the
use of oxido-reduction dyes, is used to determine the percent of active cells
in aquatic environments. The most popular oxido-reduction dyes are INT (2-(</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">p</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">-iodophenyl)-3-(</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">p</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl
tetrazolium chloride) and CTC (cyanoditolyl tetrazolium chloride) (Poschet al.,
1997; Pyle et al., 1995a). A good correlation was found between </span></div>
<a name='more'></a>the number of CTC-positive
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">E. coli </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">cells and the CFU (colony forming units) count,
regardless of the growth phase (Cre´ach et al., 2003).</span><br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">The
direct viable count (DVC) method was pioneered by Kogure and his collaborators in
Japan (Kogure et al., 1984). The sample is incubated with trace amounts of
yeast extract and nalidixic acid. The latter blocks DNA replication but not RNA
synthesis. This leads to cell elongation of active cells, which are counted
using epifluorescence microscopy. Some methods allow the detection in aquatic
samples of specific bacterial pathogens, including those in the VBNC state. One
such method combines fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH; see Chapter 1 for
more details) with DVC, followed by cell enumeration using a laser scanning
cytometer. </span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">This
approach gives information on the identity of the bacteria (Baudart et al.,
2002). To detect specific bacteria in aquatic environments, the cells can be simultaneously
labeled with a fluorescent antibody (FA technique) in combination with viability</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvP4C4E59;">/</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">activity
markers such as cyanoditolyl tetrazolium chloride or propidium iodide, which is
an indicator of membrane integrity (Caruso et al., 2003). </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">Fluorescein
diacetate (FDA) is transformed by esterase enzymes to a fluorescent compound, fluorescein,
which accumulates inside the cells (FDA is a nonpolar compound and fluorescein
a polar compound). The active fluorescent cells are counted under a fluorescent
microscope. This method is best suited for active fungal filaments but can be
applied to bacterial cells.</span></div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-60236435788459032482014-02-28T22:37:00.000-08:002014-03-24T22:42:27.674-07:00Measurement of the Number of Viable Microbes on Solid Growth Media<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">This approach consists
of measuring the number of viable cells capable of forming colonies on a
suitable growth medium. Plate count is determined by using the pour plate
method (0.1–1 mL of microbial suspension is mixed with molten agar medium in a
petri dish), or the spread plate method (0.1 mL of bacterial suspension is
spread on the surface of an agar plate). The results of plate counts are
expressed as </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">colony
forming units </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(CFU).
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Culture-based
methods have been routinely used in soil, aquatic, and wastewater microbiology,
but they reveal only about 0.1–10 percent of the total bacterial counts in most
environments (Pickup, 1991). Indeed, some microorganisms (e.g., </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">E.
coli</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Salmonella
typhimurium</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Vibrio </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">spp.) can enter into the </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">viable
but nonculturable </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(VBNC) state and are not detected by plate
counts, especially when using selective growth media (Koch, 2002; Roszak and
Colwell, 1987). The VBNC state can be triggered by factors such as nutrient
deprivation or exposure to toxic chemicals. This phenomenon is particularly
important for pathogens that may remain viable in the VBNC state for longer periods
of time than previously thought. The VBNC pathogens may remain virulent and cause
disease in humans and animals.</span></span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-81072866851513513022014-02-27T22:26:00.000-08:002014-03-24T22:36:56.744-07:00Total Number of Microbial Cells<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">A </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">plasmid
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">is a circular extrachromosomal circular DNA containing from 1000 to 200,000
bp, and reproducing independent from the chromosomal DNA. Plasmids are inherited
by daughter cells after cell division. Plasmid replication can be inhibited by </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">curing
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">the cells with compounds such as ethidium bromide. Some of the
plasmids may exist in a limited number (1–3) of copies (stringent plasmids) or
relatively large number (10–220) of copies (relaxed plasmids). </span></div>
<a name='more'></a>Relaxed plasmids
are most useful as cloning vectors. Some plasmids cannot coexist, making them
incompatible with other plasmids in the same cell.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">There
are several categories of plasmid :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Conjugative
plasmids</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">, which carry genes that code for their own transfer to other cells.
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">F factors </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">or </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">sex factors </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">are
conjugative plasmids that can become integrated into the chromosomes. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">E.
coli </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">strains that possess the chromosome-integrated F factors are called </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Hfr </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(High
frequency of recombination).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Resistance
transfer factors </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">(</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">R factors</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">) are
plasmids that confer upon the host cell resistance to antibiotics (e.g.,
tetracycline, chloramphenicol, streptomycin) and heavy metals (e.g., mercury,
nickel, cadmium). There is a great concern over these plasmids by the medical
profession. The widespread use of antibiotics in medicine and agriculture
results in the selection of multiple drug-resistant bacteria with R factors.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0mm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F0B;">Col
factors </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPS6F00;">are plasmids that code for production of colicins, which are
proteinaceous bacterial inhibiting substances.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPi1; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">.<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Catabolic
plasmids </span><span style="line-height: 115%;">code for enzymes that drive the degradation of
unusual molecules such as camphor, naphthalene, and other xenobiotics found in
environmental samples. They are important in the field of pollution control.
Plasmids can be engineered to contain desired genes and can be replicated by
introduction into an appropriate host.</span></span></span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-34102538395023370142012-04-17T23:00:00.000-07:002014-03-21T14:54:46.261-07:00Alcohol Flamming<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Biasanya digunakan
untuk meletakkan kertas cakram atau instrumen lain ke dalam cawan petri yang
berisi media<i>.</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">a)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Ambil forsep, celupkan
ujungnya ke dalam alkohol, lalu segera bakar ujungnya di atas bunsen selama
beberapa detik secara mendatar. Ingat, jangan miring </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">b)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Ambil kertas cakram steril
atau instrumen lainnya dengan forsep tadi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">c)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Ambil tabung reaksi yang
berisi zat antimikrobial, celupkan kertas cakram tadi ke dalam cairan di dalam
tabung reaksi</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">d)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Ambil cawan petri yang
telah berisi biakan bakteri di dalam agar, buka penutupnya dengan cara
memiringkan beberapa derajat hingga hanya pada satu sisi bagian saja yang
terbuka. Ingat jangan terlalu lebar membukanya atau membuka seluruh tutupnya
dari cawan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">e)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="NO-BOK" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Segera masukkan kertas
cakram steril atau instrumen lainnya dengan forsep secara hati-hati agar tidak
merusak permukaan agar. Lakukan di dekat pembakar bunsen</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">f)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Segera tutup dan bakar kembali
bibir cawan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">g)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 11pt;">Lakukan kembali dengan cara
yang sama apabila diperlukan</span></div>
</div>
Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-16084726849145023282012-03-10T09:29:00.000-08:002012-03-10T09:29:14.997-08:00Inoculating with osse<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">a)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">needle</span> <span class="hps">loop</span> <span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">the base</span> <span class="hps">in</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">loop</span> <span class="hps">continues</span> <span class="hps">until</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>end</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">until the</span> <span class="hps">red</span> <span class="hps">fluorescent</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">b</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Allow</span> <span class="hps">for a few seconds</span> <span class="hps">until the</span> <span class="hps">glow</span> <span class="hps">disappeared</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">then</span> <span class="hps">immediately take a</span> <span class="hps">test tube</span> <span class="hps">containing</span> <span class="hps">the bacterial culture</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">the third</span> <span class="hps">to open the lid</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">the middle finger</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">ring and little fingers</span> <span class="hps">while</span> <span class="hps">the index finger</span> <span class="hps">and thumb</span> <span class="hps">holding the</span> <span class="hps">needle</span> <span class="hps">loop</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">c</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">lip</span> <span class="hps">tube</span> <span class="hps">by rotating</span> <span class="hps">the tube</span> <span class="hps">so that</span> <span class="hps">all parts of the</span> <span class="hps">lips of</span> <span class="hps">the tubes</span> <span class="hps">exposed to</span> <span class="hps">flame</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">d</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Immediately</span> <span class="hps">insert the</span> <span class="hps">needle</span> <span class="hps">into the</span> <span class="hps">loop</span> <span class="hps">tube,</span> <span class="hps">then</span> <span class="hps">immediately remove it</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Try when</span> <span class="hps">inserting</span> <span class="hps">the needle</span> <span class="hps">ose</span> <span class="hps">not to touch the</span> <span class="hps">tube</span> <span class="hps">wall</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">do</span> <span class="hps">near</span> <span class="hps">the Bunsen burner</span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br /><br /> <span class="hps">e</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Burn</span> <span class="hps">back</span> <span class="hps">the lips</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">immediately close the</span> <span class="hps">tube</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Remember</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">do not</span> <span class="hps">burn</span> <span class="hps">the needle</span> <span class="hps">loop</span> <span class="hps">back</span> <span class="hps">because it will</span> <span class="hps">kill the</span> <span class="hps">bacteria</span> <span class="hps">to be</span> <span class="hps">inoculated</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">f</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Take</span> <span class="hps">another</span> <span class="hps">test tube</span> <span class="hps">to be inoculated</span><span>, open</span> <span class="hps">the lid</span> <span class="hps">the same way</span> <span class="hps atn">by (</span><span>b</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">burn</span> <span class="hps">his lips</span> <span class="hps">in the same way</span> <span class="hps atn">by (</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">g</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Immediately</span> <span class="hps">insert the</span> <span class="hps">needle</span> <span class="hps">into the tube</span> <span class="hps">was</span> <span class="hps">ose</span> <span class="hps">as</span> <span class="hps">means</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>d</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">h</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">tube</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">close the</span> <span class="hps">lips</span> <span class="hps">as</span> <span class="hps">a way</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">i</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">needle back</span> <span class="hps">loop</span> <span class="hps">as</span> <span class="hps">to</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>a)</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">j</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Do it</span> <span class="hps">again</span> <span class="hps">in the same way</span> <span class="hps">if</span> <span class="hps">necessary</span> <span class="hps">dilution</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">dilution</span></div>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-31343292004662264742012-03-10T09:27:00.001-08:002012-03-10T09:27:29.827-08:00Pipetting<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">a)</span> <span class="hps">Take</span> <span class="hps">a</span> <span class="hps">sterile</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span><span>, open</span> <span class="hps">the wrapper</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">put</span> <span class="hps">the rubber</span> <span class="hps">valve</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">b</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">burned</span> <span class="hps">edges</span> <span class="hps">on the</span> <span class="hps">Bunsen</span> <span class="hps">for a few seconds</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Do not be too</span> <span class="hps">long</span> <span class="hps">because it can</span> <span class="hps">damage the</span> <span class="hps">tip of</span> <span class="hps">the pipette</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">c</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Take the</span> <span class="hps">tube containing</span> <span class="hps">the bacterial culture</span><span>,</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">open</span> <span class="hps">the lid</span> <span class="hps">with both</span> <span class="hps">ring and little fingers</span> <span class="hps">while</span> <span class="hps">the index finger</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">middle finger</span> <span class="hps">and thumb</span> <span class="hps">holding</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">d</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Immediately</span> <span class="hps">insert the</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span> <span class="hps">into a test tube</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">rubber</span> <span class="hps">suction</span> <span class="hps">valve</span> <span class="hps">press</span> <span class="hps atn">the [</span><span>S</span><span>]</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">see figure</span> <span class="hps">below</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">and then</span> <span class="hps">immediately remove it</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">When inserting the</span> <span class="hps">pipe</span> <span class="hps">t</span> <span class="hps">try</span> <span class="hps">not to touch</span> <span class="hps">the walls of</span> <span class="hps">the tubes</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">Bunsen</span> <span class="hps">burners</span> <span class="hps">do in the</span> <span class="hps">near</span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br /><br /> <span class="hps">e</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">return</span> <span class="hps">lip</span> <span class="hps">tube</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">immediately close</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">f</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Take</span> <span class="hps">another</span> <span class="hps">test tube</span> <span class="hps">to be inoculated</span><span>, open</span> <span class="hps">the lid</span> <span class="hps">the same way</span> <span class="hps atn">by (</span><span>b</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">burn</span> <span class="hps">his lips</span> <span class="hps">in the same way</span> <span class="hps atn">by (</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">g</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Immediately</span> <span class="hps">insert the</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span> <span class="hps">into the tube</span> <span class="hps">before, and then</span> <span class="hps">remove</span> <span class="hps">fluid that</span> <span class="hps">had been</span> <span class="hps">inoculated</span> <span class="hps">from the</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span> <span class="hps atn">by pressing the [</span><span>E</span><span>]</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">h</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Fuel</span> <span class="hps">tube</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">close the</span> <span class="hps">lips</span> <span class="hps">as</span> <span class="hps">a way</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">i</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Move the</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">replace with</span> <span class="hps">a new</span> <span class="hps">pipette</span> <span class="hps">if</span> <span class="hps">will</span> <span class="hps">make</span> <span class="hps">pipetting</span> <span class="hps">back</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">j</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Do it</span> <span class="hps">again</span> <span class="hps">in the same way</span> <span class="hps">if</span> <span class="hps">necessary</span> <span class="hps">dilution</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">dilution</span></div>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-87723825475376972502012-03-10T09:24:00.002-08:002012-03-10T09:24:48.307-08:00Alcohol Flamming<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">Usually</span> <span class="hps">used to put</span> <span class="hps">paper</span> <span class="hps">discs</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">other</span> <span class="hps">instruments</span> <span class="hps">into a</span> <span class="hps">petri dish</span> <span class="hps">containing the</span> <span class="hps">media</span><span class="">.</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">a)</span> <span class="hps">Take the</span> <span class="hps">forceps</span><span>, dip</span> <span class="hps">the tip</span> <span class="hps">into the</span> <span class="hps">alcohol</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">immediately</span> <span class="hps">above</span> <span class="hps">the tip</span> <span class="hps">Bunsen</span> <span class="hps">burn</span> <span class="hps">for a few seconds</span> <span class="hps">flat.</span> <span class="hps">Remember, do not</span> <span class="hps">skew</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">b</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Take a</span> <span class="hps">paper</span> <span class="hps">disc</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">sterile</span> <span class="hps">forceps</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">other</span> <span class="hps">instruments</span> <span class="hps">were</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">c</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Take a</span> <span class="hps">test tube</span> <span class="hps">containing the</span> <span class="hps">antimicrobial</span> <span class="hps">agent</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">the paper</span> <span class="hps">discs</span> <span class="hps">were</span> <span class="hps">dipped</span> <span class="hps">into the liquid</span> <span class="hps">in</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">test tube</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">d</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Take</span> <span class="hps">a petri dish</span> <span class="hps">containing</span> <span class="hps">cultured</span> <span class="hps">bacteria</span> <span class="hps">that have been</span> <span class="hps">in</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">order</span><span>, open</span> <span class="hps">the lid</span> <span class="hps">by</span> <span class="hps">tilting</span> <span class="hps">a few</span> <span class="hps">degrees</span> <span class="hps">up to</span> <span class="hps">only one side of</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">course</span> <span class="hps">is</span> <span class="hps">open</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Remember</span> <span class="hps">do not be so</span> <span class="hps">wide</span> <span class="hps">open it</span> <span class="hps">or open</span> <span class="hps">the entire</span> <span class="hps">lid</span> <span class="hps">from</span> <span class="hps">the cup</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">e</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Immediately</span> <span class="hps">insert the paper</span> <span class="hps">disc</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">sterile</span> <span class="hps">forceps</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">other</span> <span class="hps">instruments</span> <span class="hps">carefully</span> <span class="hps">in order</span> <span class="hps">not to damage</span> <span class="hps">the surface</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Perform</span> <span class="hps">near</span> <span class="hps">Bunsen</span> <span class="hps">burner</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">f</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Immediately</span> <span class="hps">cover</span> <span class="hps">the cup</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">lip</span> <span class="hps">burns</span> <span class="hps">again</span><br /><br /> <span class="hps">g</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">Do it</span> <span class="hps">again</span> <span class="hps">in the same way</span> <span class="hps">if needed</span></span></div>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-7091519172160893232012-02-09T07:07:00.000-08:002012-02-18T07:12:30.423-08:00Chemical Sterilization<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">At present</span><span class="">, many</span> <span class="hps">chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">that have the potential</span> <span class="hps">to</span> <span class="hps">kill</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">inhibit</span> <span class="hps">microbes</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Research</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">discovery of</span> <span class="hps">new chemical</span> <span class="hps">compounds</span> <span class="hps">continues to grow</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">A good</span> <span class="hps">agent</span> <span class="hps">is a</span> <span class="hps">chemical</span> <span class="hps">that</span> <span class="hps">has the</span> <span class="hps">ability to</span> <span class="hps">rapidly</span> <span class="hps">kill</span> <span class="hps">microbes</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">lower</span> <span class="hps">doses</span> <span class="hps">without</span> <span class="hps">damaging</span> <span class="hps">the material</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">equipment</span> <span class="hps">is</span> <span class="hps">disinfected</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">In principle</span><span class="">, the mechanism of</span> <span class="hps">chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">are</span> <span class="hps">classified</span> <span class="hps">into</span><span class="">:</span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br class="" /> <span class="hps">a.</span> <span class="hps">Chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">that damage</span> <span class="hps">the cell</span> <span class="hps">membrane</span> <span class="hps">of microbes</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">b</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">that destroy</span> <span class="hps">microbial</span> <span class="hps">enzymes</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">c</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Mendenaturasi</span> <span class="hps">protein</span> <span class="hps">chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">There are</span> <span class="hps">several</span> <span class="hps">factors that</span> <span class="hps">influence the</span> <span class="hps">effectiveness of</span> <span class="hps">chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">in</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">control of</span> <span class="hps">microbes</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">namely</span><span class="">:</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">a.</span> <span class="hps">Concentration of</span> <span class="hps">chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">are used</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">The higher</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">concentration</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">effectiveness</span> <span class="hps">increased</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">b</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Contact time</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">The longer</span> <span class="hps">the material is</span> <span class="hps">in contact with</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">sterilized</span> <span class="hps">material</span> <span class="hps">then the result</span> <span class="hps">the better</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">c</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">The nature</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">types of microbes</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Microbes</span> <span class="hps">are</span> <span class="hps">encapsulated</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">berspora</span> <span class="hps">more</span> <span class="hps">resistant</span> <span class="hps">than</span> <span class="hps">the</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">capsulated</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">berspora</span><br class="" /><span class="hps">d</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">The presence</span> <span class="hps">of organic</span> <span class="hps">materials</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">extras.</span> <span class="hps">The presence</span> <span class="hps">of organic materials</span> <span class="hps">can</span> <span class="hps">decrease the effectiveness of</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">chemistry</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /><span class="hps">e</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">pH</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">acidity</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Effectiveness of</span> <span class="hps">chemicals</span> <span class="hps">can</span> <span class="hps">change with</span> <span class="hps">changes in</span> <span class="hps">pH</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /><br class="" /> <b><span class="hps">Chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">that damage</span> <span class="hps">cell</span> </b><span class="hps"><b>membranes</b>:</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">1</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Surfaktans</span> <span class="hps">group</span> <span class="hps">(Surface</span> <span class="hps">Active</span> <span class="hps">Agents)</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">class of</span> <span class="hps">anionic</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">cationic</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">nonionic</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">2</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Phenol</span> <span class="hps">group</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps"> </span><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><b><span class="hps">Chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">damage the</span> <span class="hps">enzymes:</span></b><br class="" /> <span class="hps">1</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Classes of</span> <span class="hps">heavy</span> <span class="hps">metals</span> <span class="hps">such as</span> <span class="hps">arsenic</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">silver</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">mercury</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">etc.</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /> <span class="hps">2</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Groups</span> <span class="hps">such as the</span> <span class="hps">class of</span> <span class="hps">halogen</span> <span class="hps">oxidizer</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">hydrogen</span> <span class="hps">peroxide</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">formaldehyde</span><span class="">.</span></span><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><br class="" /> <b><span class="hps">Chemical</span> <span class="hps">agents</span> <span class="hps">that cause</span> <span class="hps">protein</span> <span class="hps">denaturation</span></b>:<br class="" /> <span class="hps">Chemical</span> <span class="hps">agent</span> <span class="hps">that causes</span> <span class="hps">coagulation</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">precipitation of</span> <span class="hps">protoplasm</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">such as</span> <span class="hps">alcohols</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">glycerol</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">acid</span> <span class="hps">materials</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">alkalis</span><span class="">.</span></span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-19803162024259491612012-02-08T06:34:00.000-08:002012-02-18T06:37:47.399-08:00Physically sterilization<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Cara ini digunakan untuk mensterilkan alat/bahan yang tahan panas, tekanan atau radiasi.">This method is used to sterilize equipment / material that resists heat, pressure or radiation. </span><span title="Sterilisasi ini dapat dilakukan dengan cara:">Sterilization can be done by:</span><b><span title="a.">a. </span></b><span title="Pemanasan kering"><b>Dry heat</b></span><span title="Panas kering, biasanya digunakan untuk mensterilisasi alat-alat laboratorium.">Dry heat, usually used to sterilize laboratory equipment. </span><span title="Untuk alat-alat seperti cawan petri, botol atau bahan seperti tepung, talk dan sebagainya.">For tools such as Petri dishes, bottles or materials such as starch, talc and the like. </span><span title="Umumnya menggunakan alat oven.">Generally use the oven. </span><span title="Suhu efektifnya adalah 160oC selama 2 jam., sering juga peneliti menggunakan suhu 175oC selama 1,5 sampai 2 jam.">Is the effective temperature of 160oC for 2 hours., Researchers often use temperature of 175oC for 1.5 to 2 hours. </span><span title="Untuk alat-alat seperti pinset jarum ose, ujung pipet, bibir tabung reaksi/erlenmeyer/cawan petri biasanya sterilisasi menggunakan lampu spiritus atau Bunsen.">For
tools such as tweezers needle loop, the tip of the pipette, test tube
lip / erlenmeyer / petri dish sterilization typically use methylated
spirit lamp or Bunsen.</span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Untuk alat-alat seperti pinset jarum ose, ujung pipet, bibir tabung reaksi/erlenmeyer/cawan petri biasanya sterilisasi menggunakan lampu spiritus atau Bunsen."></span></span><br /><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><b><span title="b.">b. </span></b><span title="Pemanasan basah"><b>Warm-wet</b></span><span title="Cara ini dapat dilakukan dengan pasteurisasi, perebusan, penggunaan uap air panas, penggunaan uap panas bertekanan Panas basah/lembab dengan uap jenuh bertekanan.">This
can be done by pasteurization, boiling, use of steam, the use of
pressurized steam heat wet / humid with the saturated vapor pressure. </span><span title="Sangat efektif untuk sterilisasi karena menyediakan suhu jauh di atas titik didih, proses cepat, daya tembus kuat dan kelembaban sangat tinggi sehingga mempermudah koagulasi protein sel-sel mikroba yang menyebabkan sel hancur.">Very
effective for sterilization because it provides a temperature well
above the boiling point, the fast, powerful and penetrating power is
very high humidity making it easier for the coagulation proteins of
microbial cells that cause the cells were destroyed. </span><span title="Suhu efektifnya adalah 121oC pada tekanan 5 kg/cm2 dengan waktu standar 15 menit.">Effective temperature is 121oC at a pressure of 5 kg/cm2 with the standard time of 15 minutes. </span><span title="Alat yang digunakan : pressure cooker, autoklaf (autoclave)">Tools used: pressure cooker, autoclave (autoclave)</span><b><span title="c.">c. </span></b><span title="Radiasi"><b>Radiation</b></span><span title="Bakteri terutama bentuk sel vegetatifnya dapat terbunuh dengan penyinaran sinar ultraviolet (UV) dan sinar-sinar ionisasi.">Bacteria in particular forms of vegetative cells can be killed by irradiation with ultraviolet (UV) and ionizing rays. </span><span title="Radiasi menggunakan sinar UV juga digunakan untuk sterilisasi ruangan laboratorium, enkas atau alat-alat gelas.">Using UV radiation is also used for sterilization of laboratory space, equipment enkas or glass.</span><span title="- Sinar UV : Bakteri yang berada di udara atau yang berada di lapisan permukaan suatu">- UV rays: Bacteria in the air or in the surface layer of a </span><span title="benda yang terpapar sinar UV akan mati.">objects exposed to UV rays will die.</span><span title="- Sinar Ionisasi : yang termasuk sinar ionisasi adalah sinar X, sinar alfa, sinar beta dan">- Ray Ionization: included are X-ray ionizing rays, alpha rays, beta rays and </span><span title="sinar gamma.">gamma rays. </span><span title="Sterilisasi dengan sinar ionisasi memerlukan biaya yang besar dan">Sterilization by ionizing rays costly and </span><span title="biasanya hanya digunakan pada industri farmasi maupun industri kedokteran.">usually only used in the pharmaceutical industry and medical industry.<br /> </span><span title="Sinar X : Daya penetrasi baik namun perlu energi besar.">X-ray: The good penetration but large energy needs.<br /> </span><span title="Sinar alfa : Memiliki sifat bakterisidal tetapi tidak memiliki daya penetrasi.">Alpha rays: It has bactericidal properties but have no penetration power.<br /> </span><span title="Sinar beta : Daya penetrasinya sedikit lebih besar daripada sinar X.">Beta rays: The penetration is slightly larger than the X-ray<br /> </span><span title="Sinar gamma : Kekuatan radiasinya besar dan efektif untuk sterilisasi bahan">Gamma rays: the radiation power of a large and effective for the sterilization of materials </span><span title="makanan.">food.</span></span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1523310997182089123.post-36183691236778199332012-02-08T06:30:00.000-08:002012-02-18T06:31:49.903-08:00Mechanic Sterilization<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps">There</span> <span class="hps">are two</span> <span class="hps">filters</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">namely</span> <span class="hps">bacteriological</span> <span class="hps">filter</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">air</span> <span class="hps">filter</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /><br class="" /><br class="" /> <span class="hps">a)</span> <span class="hps">bacteriological</span> <span class="hps">filters</span> <span class="hps">are typically used</span> <span class="hps">to</span> <span class="hps">sterilize</span> <span class="hps">materials that</span> <span class="hps">are not resistant to</span> <span class="hps">heating</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">such as</span> <span class="hps">sugar solution</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">serum</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">antibiotics</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">antitoxin</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">trace elements</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">enzymes</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">vitamins</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">hormones</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">media</span> <span class="hps">containing</span> <span class="hps">materials</span> <span class="hps">etc.</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">Filtration</span> <span class="hps">technique</span> <span class="hps">using a</span> <span class="hps">filtering</span> <span class="hps">principle</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">which</span> <span class="hps">was</span> <span class="hps">filtered</span> <span class="hps">bacteria</span> <span class="hps">alone</span><span class="">.</span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br class="" /> <span class="hps">Among the</span> <span class="hps">types</span> <span class="hps">of bacteria</span> <span class="hps">that are commonly used</span> <span class="hps">filters</span> <span class="hps">are:</span> <span class="hps">Berkefeld</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">from</span> <span class="hps">fossil</span> <span class="hps">diatomae</span><span class="">)</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">Chamberland</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">of</span> <span class="hps">porcelain</span><span class="">)</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">Seitz</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">of</span> <span class="hps">asbestos</span><span class="">)</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">seluosa</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">There are</span> <span class="hps">several</span> <span class="hps">types of</span> <span class="hps">membrane</span> <span class="hps">filters</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">nylon</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">polyethersulfone</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">PES</span><span class="">)</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">cellulose</span> <span class="hps">nitrate</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">cellulose</span> <span class="hps">acetate</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">mixed</span> <span class="hps">esters</span><span class="">)</span> <span class="hps">with different</span> <span class="hps">pore</span> <span class="hps">sizes</span><span class="">,</span> <span class="hps">for</span> <span class="hps">the purpose of sterilization</span> <span class="hps">is commonly used</span> <span class="hps">pore</span> <span class="hps">size of</span> <span class="hps">0.2</span> <span class="hps">mm</span><span class="">.</span><br class="" /><br class="" /><br class="" /> <span class="hps">b</span><span class="">)</span> <span class="hps">high-efficiency</span> <span class="hps">air</span> <span class="hps">filter</span> <span class="hps">for filtering</span> <span class="hps">air</span> <span class="hps">containing</span> <span class="hps">particles</span> <span class="hps">(High</span> <span class="hps">Efficiency Particulate</span> <span class="hps">Air</span> <span class="hps">Filter</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">HEPA</span><span class="">)</span> <span class="hps">air cleaner</span> <span class="hps">to</span> <span class="hps">allow</span> <span class="hps">supplies to be</span> <span class="hps">in a closed room</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">laminar</span> <span class="hps">air</span> <span class="hps">flow system</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">Laminar</span> <span class="hps">Air Flow</span><span class="">)</span>Tito Wahyu Anggorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02664940327932858768noreply@blogger.com0